What is the difference between recall and retrieval

People sometimes recall other features of the target word such as its first letter or the words that have a similar meaning. Two theories have been given by scientists to explain this phenomenon. The first is the direct-access perspective , according to which the memory is not strong enough to recall but it is strong enough to trigger the partial recall.

The second is the inferential perspective which states that the state of partial recall occurs when the subject can infer knowledge of the target word, but not able to join the pieces of information together usually because those pieces do not exist in the memory. The characteristics of the environment in which a memory is encoded are also encoded along with the memory. This leads to the context-dependency of retrieval which means that the memories are more easily retrieved in the same environmental conditions in which they were encoded.

Studies have shown that females are better than males at recalling episodic memories, but no differences have been seen in the two during retrieval of semantic memories. The gender differences in memory retrieval are the result of using different strategies for processing information.

A study has shown that females remember non-verbal cues while males tend to remember verbal cues. Attention has an effect on memory in its encoding process. If someone does not focus on something in the encoding phase, it is very difficult for that person to retrieve it later.

Interference refers to the interaction between previous memories and newly formed memories. Proactive interference is the forgetting of new memories due to their interference with old memories in the brain. Retroactive interference is a failure to recall previously encoded information due to its interaction with new knowledge.

Physical activity or physical health appears to be an important factor in the retrieval of memories. Children with poor physical health usually have poor mental and cognitive health. Low physical activity and fitness level is directly linked to low academic achievement due to mental and cognitive problems. Studies have shown that physical activity plays an important role in influencing the hippocampus.

The hippocampus is the part of the brain involved in the encoding of information. It may also affect other areas of the brain. In this way, physical activity and exercise help in the proper functioning of the neural networks.

Some studies have shown that eating breakfast before going to school helps in more retrieval of information. The students who have a habit of eating breakfast generally scored more in their exams. Retrieval failure refers to the failure to recall information from long-term memory. In this case, memory has been previously encoded in long-term memory, but the person is not able to retrieve it.

This does not happen due to the loss of the memory but because there are no cues available to retrieve it. Retrieval cues are of two types. External cues or contextual cues which are in the environment and Internal cues which are inside the human brain.

In these cases, mostly the environment in which memory is being retrieved is different from the environment of its encoding. Hence there are no external cues present which then leads to retrieval failure of the memory. For example, sometimes a person cannot remember the details of an event but returning to the place of that event gives him external cues and he begins to remember the details. Memory recall and retrieval involve remembering different types of memories stored in the brain.

Retroactive interference occurs when newly learned information interferes with the encoding or recall of previously learned information. If a participant was asked to recall a list of words, and was then immediately presented with new information, it could interfere with remembering the initial list. If you learn to use a new kind of computer and then later have to use the old model again, you might find you have forgotten how to use it.

This is due to retroactive interference. Sometimes a person is not able to retrieve a memory that they have previously encoded. This can be due to decay, a natural process that occurs when neural connections decline, like an unused muscle. Occasionally, a person will experience a specific type of retrieval failure called tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. This is the failure to retrieve a word from memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent.

People who experience this can often recall one or more features of the target word such as the first letter, words that sound similar, or words that have a similar meaning. While this process is not completely understood, there are two theories as to why it occurs.

The first is the direct-access perspective , which states that the memory is not strong enough to retrieve but strong enough to trigger the state. The inferential perspective posits that the state occurs when the subject infers knowledge of the target word, but tries to piece together different clues about the word that are not accessible in memory.

Privacy Policy. Skip to main content. Search for:. This term describes the compression of the coffee grounds in the brewing group of the espresso machine. The filled coffee grounds are compressed with a round pressure on a metal disk, so that water can flow evenly through all places of the coffee cake.

Then the pre-brewing takes place, in which hot water is added to the brewing group at low pressure. A valve is then opened, which presses water at 9 bars onto the coffee grounds and brews the coffee.

This valve delivers water at a constant pressure of 9 bar until the barista stops the process. An ideal espresso is produced when an espresso with 25 ml has been produced after 25 s.

If the water runs faster through the flour, the complete aroma is usually not extracted, and the coffee is too tasteless. The business of sugar. It is white, sweet and very popular among people: every German alone eats around 35 kg of sugar a year. A daily dose of about g is four times as much as experts allow us to eat. The confectionery industry in particular is doing good business with this desire.

After all, it achieved sales of around 13 billion euros in Germany in This is mainly due to the fact that Germans are eating more and more products containing sugar. Doctors and consumer protectors have been warning about this development for a long time, as they see increased sugar consumption as one reason why people in Europe are getting fatter and fatter. The sugar and confectionery industries take a different view. And that is why they have a special interest in sugar maintaining a positive image in the public eye.

Under no circumstances should sugar be associated with obesity or tooth decay. For example, they advertise products containing sugar, such as Nutella and Coca Cola, which are associated with sporting activity and joie de vivre. A new advertising strategy of well-known companies is to give the brand a new coat of paint. For some time now, Coca Cola, Pepsi and Co. Stevia is to times sweeter than sugar and yet extremely low in calories. Stevia is supposed to make Coca Cola healthier and greener.

A look at the list of ingredients shows, however, that even the green varieties of Pepsi and Cola are only minimally healthier or better: less harmful to health. The new products contain just one third less sugar than the originals.

The bottle versions are fully recyclable and consist of 30 percent vegetable material. The remaining 70 percent, however, consists of fossil raw materials. Commercially available PET bottles are at least as environmentally friendly. So above all, the image becomes greener. Instead of the current maximum of ten percent, the proportion of hidden sugar should now be as low as five percent. The new recommendation deals with types of sugar such as sucrose, fructose and glucose that manufacturers, cooks or consumers add to their food and drinks.

Sweet whey powder, dextrose, glucose syrup, maltodextrin and whey product—are only a small selection of products behind which sugar is ultimately found. If one of these products is found on the list of ingredients of convenience foods, the known sugar content slips further back. This gives the impression that a food contains less sugar and is healthier.

However, the natural sugar content in fruit, vegetables and milk is irrelevant, since according to the WHO there is no indication that it is harmful to health. The limit, halved to five percent, means that an adult should not consume more than 25 g of sugar per day, i.

A can of lemonade alone contains an average of ten teaspoons of sugar. The WHO pointed out that the sugar content of industrial foods is often difficult to detect. One tablespoon of ketchup, for example, contains a whole teaspoon of sugar. The WHO therefore calls for better labelling of the hidden sugar content in food and drink and for a restriction on advertising of sugary foods to children.

The organization also advocates a dialogue with the food industry to reduce the sugar content of its products. The food industry in Germany criticized the new WHO guideline as a "false solution" with dubious scientific justification. The triumph of the white crystals—sugar—has conquered and changed the world.

Nowadays sugar is one of the most common products, but there was a time when this was not the case. A few sacks, among other spices, were laboriously transported from faraway Asia to Europe, and a few small sugar cane plantations existed around the Mediterranean. In the South Pacific region, sugar cane has been known for several thousand years. But its cultivation is laborious and so there was no abundance of sugar there either. The conquest of the world by sugar began with the conquest of the New World by Christopher Columbus.

Because of the tropically warm climate, it soon became clear to the conquerors that sugar cane could be grown here. On board one of the first ships they therefore took some sugar cane seedlings with them to the Caribbean. Although the plants grew and prospered, the work in the fields was extremely strenuous.

The locals refused to help and paid for this attitude with their lives. Only 50 years later all Native Americans had been wiped out. Now the conquerors had to come up with something so that the plants would not die again. Since the few small sugar cane plantations in the Mediterranean region were already managed by slaves—the plague in Europe had decimated the regular workforce—the solution for sugar cane in the Caribbean was obvious. The Spanish bought slaves from Africa.

In the following years more than 10 million Africans were shipped to America. For one to two months the to slaves on board of the ships had to lived chained in a crouched or lying position. Only strong and healthy people could endure this.

More than a third did not survive the crossing. Arriving overseas, they had to cope with the extremely hard work on the sugar cane fields every day from morning to evening.

A triangular trade dominated trade on the Atlantic for four centuries: sugar came from America to Europe and weapons, spirits and cotton fabrics from here to Africa and people from Africa to America. Frederick the Great of Prussia was annoyed in the middle of the eighteenth century about the high sugar prices and his dependence on the Spaniards and Englishmen, who were meanwhile also active in the sugar cane business.

He commissioned the Berlin chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf to look for a native plant that also contained a larger quantity of sugar. And Marggraf found what he was looking for in He isolated the sweet crystals from the beet, which until then had been considered a poor man's food. But it was only his successor Franz Carl Achard who managed to grow the beet in such a way that the sugar yield really paid off. And it was not until that Achard was able to open the world's first beet sugar factory in Kunern, Silesia.

This was followed by the first boom in the European beet sugar industry thanks to Napoleon Bonaparte, the emperor of the French. With his Continental Blockade in , he prevented the import of Caribbean cane sugar and temporarily turned beet growers into monopolists. But after the end of the blockade, cane sugar flooded the market and all but one French sugar factory had to close.

This factory, however, was the nucleus of the European beet sugar industry, which from now on gained more and more ground. Before the production of sugar was known, sugar cane was chewed and sucked to obtain its sweet taste. In the tropical countries where sugar cane is grown, you can still find fresh cane on the regional markets today, which is used as it was originally to extract the sweet, juicy pulp or to squeeze a kind of soft drink out of it.

The well-known cane sugar is primarily used for sweetening, for example in confectionery and bakery products. The golden brown sugar is also often used for decorating. Cane sugar also serves as the basis for one of the most popular cocktails in Germany, the caipirinhia.

Many hundreds of years ago, sugar was still pure luxury and was only used sparingly on special occasions. Cane sugar is an essential part of everyday life and is part of the lifestyle. Brazil also uses the sugar cane plant to produce alcohol fuel, which is much cheaper than conventional petroleum-based fuels. The well-known white sugar, as we know it from the supermarket, can be made from beets or sugar cane. It is refined many times until the molasses are completely removed.

Clumsy and not sweet at all—that's the impression you could get when you look at a sugar beet. But inside it hides a sweet secret: sugar. The sugar beets planted today contain about 20 percent sugar: sucrose. Today, the inconspicuous beets from Germany cover almost our entire sugar requirement. For this purpose, about 4 million tons of beets are harvested every year. But it's a long way from the field to the shelf, taking the beet through highly technical and complicated factory facilities.

In autumn, large machines harvest the beet fields, which are spread over about , hectares throughout Germany. Only three large companies share the sugar market in Germany. The farmers deliver the raw material beet to the sugar factories on time and only on order.

Because the delivery of the many beets to a few factories is not only a logistical challenge. Only when the beet is processed quickly after harvesting does it degrade little of its valuable ingredient, sugar.

It only takes about ten hours from delivery to the factory to the finished sugar. The process continues with a bath for the beets. A special beet washing machine and large quantities of water clean the beets of soil and dirt. Afterwards it goes over treadmills into the cutting machine: From it the so-called beet chips come, from which the sugar can be more simply removed.

In a tower about 20 m high, the beet pulp travels from bottom to top, while hot steam is conducted over it. The sugar escapes from the plant cells and dissolves in the water. The sugar cane must also be processed as soon as possible after harvesting, as it is quickly attacked by microorganisms that break down the sugar. In contrast to beet, the tube is ground into small pieces in a large mill. The juice is squeezed out of these pieces between rollers.

Considerable quantities of fiber remain—the bagasse, which is returned to the field as a natural fertilizer. The resulting sugar solution, the raw juice from beet or cane, is heated in large boilers. However, the solution still contains unwanted impurities.

These are removed by so-called carbonation with chemicals until a light yellow, clear juice remains. To increase the sugar content, the raw juice is thickened in large boilers—until a sugar content of about 70 percent is reached. But the whole thing has little to do with household sugar: it is a viscous brown mass.

One important step is still missing: the sugar in the juice must crystallize. At low pressure and around 70 degrees Celsius, sugar crystals of pure household sugar sucrose slowly form in a kettle.

If they are large enough, they are separated from the remaining juice. A centrifuge separates the crystals from the brown liquid, molasses: the centrifugal force presses them against a sieve through which only the liquid molasses can flow.

The remaining sugar slowly changes color from dark brown to white. Only then is it pure enough to end up on the supermarket shelf as household sugar. An adult human being consists of about one percent of different sugar molecules. These carbohydrates are part of many cells and tissues. But above all, sugar is an important source of energy. The brain even derives its energy exclusively from sugar, which is constantly provided by the blood. Strictly speaking, blood sugar is glucose dextrose.

Glucose is absorbed from food and is also produced by the organism itself. The energy carrier glucose reaches all organs and tissues of the body via the blood, is absorbed by the cells and converted into energy. Glucose is completely degraded to carbon dioxide and water in the cytoplasm and mitochondria. At the end of the degradation process, the cell uses the released energy to obtain the energy-rich compound ATP, which is required for many metabolic processes as a universal source of energy for the organism.

The most important hormone in the sugar balance is insulin. It is necessary for the cells of the muscles and fat tissue to be able to absorb glucose molecules from the blood. Like a key, the hormone opens channels in the cell membranes through which glucose then enters the cell interior. Insulin thus ensures that the cells have enough energy at their disposal as well as a constant blood sugar level. Insulin is produced in the pancreas.

If the pancreas produces too little insulin, glucose can only enter the cells to a reduced extent and the blood sugar level rises. The brain cannot obtain energy from fat—it is dependent on the sugar in the blood. That is why the body prevents this: If the blood sugar drops too quickly, it immediately throttles insulin production. In addition, it releases another hormone: glucagon, the antagonist of insulin. The glucagon ensures that new sugars are formed in the liver from protein building blocks.

It also releases previously stored sugar glycogen from the muscles. Together, insulin and glucagon ensure that the blood sugar in healthy people is constantly kept between 80 and mg of glucose per ml of blood.

If the glucose concentration in the blood is too high, there is a diabetes. And in fact, in diabetes the flowing blood is sweet and often the urine too. The disease is very individual and there are two completely independent ways in which it develops. That is why doctors differentiate between types 1 and 2 in diabetes. Diabetes mellitus type 1 used to be called adolescent diabetes because this form of diabetes typically begins in childhood and adolescence. Insulin production is therefore reduced and often comes to a complete standstill.

As a result, the blood sugar level rises. When the immune system is directed against the invaders, it unintentionally destroys the important insulin cells. Doctors call this phenomenon autoimmunity. The vast majority 95 percent of diabetics are type 2 diabetics. This form was formerly also called adult onset diabetes, as it almost exclusively affected older people.

However, young people and even children are increasingly developing this form of diabetes, the causes of which are fundamentally different from those of type 1: Type 2 diabetes is mainly caused by obesity and lack of exercise. But even in this form of diabetes, the hereditary factors form the basis on which the disease of sugar metabolism can develop.

Parents probably inherit how well the specialized islet cells of the pancreas react to an increased insulin requirement. If insulin production is limited due to genes, an increased insulin requirement cannot be met and diabetes develops. And many people have an increased insulin requirement—especially those who are overweight or lack exercise.

The reason for this is that the cells of fat and muscle tissue react weaker to the metabolic hormone. Doctors call this insulin resistance. Why are there different ripening beans on a tree and what effects does this have on the taste of the coffee been? What image do well-known sugar companies convey and what measures are being taken to achieve this?

Describe how the two essential hormones in the sugar balance are related to each other and which functions they fulfil. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material.

If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Reprints and Permissions. It matters how to recall — task differences in retrieval practice. Instr Sci 48, — Download citation. Received : 07 January Accepted : 26 October Published : 10 November Issue Date : December Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:.

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Skip to main content. Search SpringerLink Search. Download PDF. Abstract The type of a recall task may substantially influence the effects of learning by retrieval practice. Introduction Retrieval practice is a learning activity that involves recalling information from memory. Direct effects of retrieval practice Regarding direct effects of retrieval practice, there is ample evidence for differences when using different retrieval-practice tasks.

We formulated the following hypotheses: Targeted retrieval hypothesis: Targeted retrieval via specific short-answer tasks improves the learning of the targeted sub-content more than holistic retrieval by free-recall tasks.

Indirect effects of retrieval practice Different recall tasks may not just lead to different learning outcomes—they can influence other factors relevant to future learning. Hence, we formulated the following hypothesis: Calibration hypothesis: Targeted retrieval via specific short-answer tasks increases calibration more than holistic retrieval via an unspecific free-recall task.

We formulated the following hypothesis: Self-efficacy hypothesis: Holistic retrieval via unspecific free-recall increases self-efficacy more than targeted retrieval via specific short-answer tasks. Materials Texts We drafted two texts Text 1: words; Text 2: words dealing with two different contents coffee and sugar. Recall tasks We constructed short-answer tasks and free-recall tasks.

Mental effort To assess subjective mental effort, we asked participants after each recall task type how much effort they had invested in answering the task s Pass ; Sweller et al. Calibration To assess the meta-knowledge for calculating calibration, we used two judgment-of-learning items JOLs. Procedure Our experiment consisted of two computer-based sessions that entailed four phases: the learning phase, intervention phase recall tasks: targeted retrieval by short-answer or holistic retrieval by free-recall , immediate assessment phase metacognition, self-efficacy, and situational interest in the first session, and the delayed-assessment phase in the second session posttest on learning outcomes in short-answer and free recall posttest; delay: 7 days.

Results We used an alpha level of 0. Prior analyses As a basis for analyzing task-specificity effects, we examined whether the mental effort would be similar in both conditions.

Direct effects To assess the direct effects, we checked for differences in the one-week-delayed assessment phase. Table 1 Means and standard deviations in brackets of performance variables in both conditions Full size table. Table 2 Means and standard deviations in brackets of secondary effect variables in both conditions Full size table. Full size image. Discussion Our study makes the following contributions to the available literature: 1 The present findings confirm the assumption that task type matters when employing recall tasks for retrieval practice—a novel finding in this research field.

Theoretical implications Regarding direct effects, our findings provide evidence of the mechanisms involved in retrieval-practice effects.

Practical implications In this study, we learned that different recall tasks actually make a difference. Limitations Order of posttest tasks In our experimental design, we used the same order of posttest tasks for all participants; first free-recall posttest and then short-answer posttest. Limitations of our findings We confirmed most of our hypotheses. Further studies Our findings suggest that a more detailed analysis of learning outcomes can establish a fruitful basis for drawing practical and theoretical implications.

Conclusion Overall, the type of recall task in retrieval practice makes a difference in learning. References Adesope, O. Article Google Scholar Alexander, P. Article Google Scholar Anderson, J. Article Google Scholar Arnold, K. Article Google Scholar Bandura, A. Google Scholar Bandura, A. Article Google Scholar Butler, A. Article Google Scholar Carpenter, S. Article Google Scholar Chan, J. Article Google Scholar Davis, D. Article Google Scholar Endres, T. You can markedly increase the likelihood of students being able to recall a memory at a future time by strengthening it through retrieval.

Retrieval is an active reconstruction process, not a playback of a memory of an event, fact, concept, or process. Every time a memory is accessed for retrieval, that process modifies the memory itself; essentially re-encoding the memory. The good news: Retrieval makes the memory itself more recallable in the future.

How does it work, and work best for learning? Retrieval is cue and context dependent - know this and how you can cue retrieval and provide the best context to strengthen memory. The more possible cues available to elicit retrieval, the better.